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By the late nineteenth century, however, scientists had reduced the phenomenon of the mind to a mass of physiological processes.
Out of this environment of cold logic came Sigmund Freud.
Whilst in medical school, he became engrossed in research into the central nervous system. After receiving his medical degree, he devoted himself to psychiatry and the study of nervous diseases, eventually becoming interested in the use of hypnosis.
His research into neurotic disorders led him further away from conventional physiological explanations and into the realm of psychology, and he received much scorn for his views from the scientific community.
Freud's experiences led him to believe in the presence of an unconscious element, a part of us that functions contrary to the laws of logic that we live by on the conscious level. He saw the unconscious as the dwelling-place of childhood traumas and sexual fantasies that have been buried to avoid the pain of confrontation.
He recognised the existence of instinctual drives that originate in that dark, chaotic world, eventually being thrust into consciousness by psychic energy or libido. An unresolved part of our past, therefore, would cry for attention, using powerful images and moods in an attempt to escape into reality. Dreams, Freud concluded, were another way the unconscious tries to communicate with the everyday mind. Its task, however, is not an easy one; these powerfully-charged symbols and images (usually) make no sense to our logical way of thinking.
One of our more understandable drives is our lust for pleasure - the pleasure principle - which Freud termed id. This deep, instinctual part of us needs release and it enlists the aid of libido to contact the conscious. The aspect of consciousness most closely related to outside reality then lends a hand.
This aspect, the ego, interacts with outer reality and knows its way around. Its task, then, is to see how it can fulfil the desires of the id (through reality-testing) and to proceed in that direction. It is often the case, though, that the immediate attainment of the desired goal is not plausible, so the ego has to enforce the postponement of what the id wants achieved.
The id, knowing no logic, continues to send its unrealistic impulses to the ego, forcing the latter to build up a series of defence mechanisms to protect itself. One of these mechanisms is repression, which is when the desire is excluded from consciousness altogether; another is projection, or the process in which others become the object of the unacknowledged desires; another yet is reactionformation, or behaving in direct opposition to the impulse.
Another factor (besides bad timing) that influences the ego to call on a defence mechanism is the super-ego.
Freud saw this element as being partly unconscious and as having power equivalent to that of the id. The super-ego reflects the values of society and, in particular, parental figures. These internalised standards often compel the ego to stop certain impulses from entering consciousness, hence the need for defence mechanisms. It is often the struggle between the id and the super-ego, with the ego between them as the mediator, that gives rise to unexplainable feelings of guilt or shame; the strain on the ego can impede its progress, resulting in formation of neurotic symptoms.
These (and other) theories of Freud were, for the most part, rejected by the medical community. Nonetheless, his school of Psychoanalysis soon attracted many followers, one of whom was a young man named Carl Jung.
Freud was an encouraging teacher, however, and Jung soon became his prize pupil. They would work closely together for years, but their relationship was destined to end when their differences in opinion could no longer be reconciled.
Jung eventually saw the need to modify certain principles of Psychoanalysis and the two men parted ways, much to the disappointment of Jung.
Their disagreement arose principally over the concept of libido. Freud saw the unconscious as the home of sexual and pleasure impulses that have been repressed since childhood, therefore having nothing to do with the problems of present reality; Jung, however, viewed libido (or impulses) arising from the unconscious as having relevance to both the present and the past.
Jung noted that not all libido is sexual or pleasure orientated in origin; the hunger drive, for example, expresses itself all throughout our lives, and it seems more appropriate to say that it is a survival instinct rather than one devoted to the pursuit of pleasure.
Jung also identified drives in the unconscious that appeared to be pushing us forward to higher levels of consciousness. That an inner force compels us towards completion, or wholeness, Jung found undoubtable. Furthermore, he was convinced that these drives enter our consciousness intermittently to call for change or, more precisely, the continuation of mental evolution.
So, in short, here lies the basic difference between Freud and Jung : one considered the unconscious to be the rubbish-bin of the human mind, with the emerging psychic messages reminding that it has to be emptied once in a while; the other agreed that this is most often the case, but also argued that the unconscious has another side to it that thrusts us forward. From this, Jung came to see the unconscious as our spring of creativity, but Freud would have none of it.
Jung broke from the Psychoanalytical school, though taking many of Freud's ideas and terms with him, to establish what he termed Analytical Psychology, and set to work modifying and expanding the concepts of his former mentor. Today, many wonder how Freud could have remained so dogmatic in the light of what Jung was discovering in his studies. Some of the latter's conclusions are nowadays seen as natural progressions and expansions on Freud's basic concepts. Whatever the reasons, we still have to thank Freud for his immense contribution to medical science. Those who see Freud as a blindman in comparison to Jung should remember that the latter owed much to his mentor.
He argued that the super-ego is not separate from the ego; he termed that part of our ego so dedicated to fitting into society's set of expectations the persona - our mask to the outside world. The persona is distinct from the super-ego in that the former is part of consciousness while the super-ego was said to be partly unconscious.
Jung realised that there is indeed a part of us that holds the values of parental figures and society at large. He also saw another part of us that could enlist the aid of the ego to counter the demands of the persona. This element, which he termed the Self, is that part of the unconscious that compels us forward.
The Self can recognise those demands of the persona that are inhibiting inner evolution; the reality-orientated part of the ego then becomes the unfortunate tool of both.
Jung's research into libido also brought him to the conclusion that the unconscious is two-fold; that is, that we have a personal unconscious (the sum of all our experiences in life) and a collective unconscious.
He realised that the images that invade our thoughts are largely universal. These primordial images he called archetypes, and he saw them as arising from the collective unconscious, which he viewed as the sum of all past human experience. The fact that mankind shares these archetypes is evident in the striking similarities between religious symbolisms of cultures that were isolated from one another.
For example, the symbol of the mother has meant shelter, protection and nourishment to many cultures; similarly, the father image has symbolised power, authority and the creative spirit.
Jung argued that archetypes, so often projected onto people or things in our environment, are instrumental in our psychological evolution. Archetypes give us a chance to recognise fairly inaccessible parts of our unconscious. To see this in action, we must look to Jung's model.
In simple terms, Jung's model was this: an unrecognised element of the unconscious - be it a repressed trauma or desire, an instinctual need for comfort and pleasure or the drive to achieve in life - is urged by the Self to call out to consciousness; the personal unconscious sends its libido into consciousness, usually accompanied by an archetype from the collective unconscious; the ego tries to cater to the needs of the unconscious, but often finds conflict with the persona; the persona pushes the impulses back to unconsciousness.
A basic example of this would be the young man whom is invaded by archetypes of power and authority. He misinterprets the true message - which may be a call for the boy to progress positively in school and in his environment - and thus becomes a schoolbully. Alternatively, his persona (developed amongst his peers) may rebel against the impulses that are compelling him towards adulthood and cause him to rebel against authority figures, such as teachers. The true nature of the libido is left unrecognised.
After a while, Jung came to see the libido as not only moving forwards (progression) and backwards (regression) but also inwards and outwards. He coined the terms extraverted and introverted and helped define the ways in which people can progress and regress.
The progression of libido (or adaptation to outer conditions) can occur in two ways: extraverted, when the progression is influenced by objects and environmental conditions; and introverted, when the progression has to adapt to the conditions of the ego.
The regression of libido (or adaptation to the inner conditions) can similarly proceed in two ways: extraverted, manifest as "a flight into extravagant experience of the outside world"; and introverted, being retreat from the outside world.
"The process of energic transformation or conversion" he termed the canalization of libido, viewing it as "a transfer of psychic intensities or values from one content to another, a process corresponding to the physical transformation of energy".
Jung was perplexed by this question, and his journey to find the answer took him into many different territories. He looked towards mythology, Eastern philosophies, various religions and even the occult for enlightenment. He educated himself in the work that was being done on the subject by others in the medical profession; he even consulted doctors whom were researching the roles of hormones. He read works by European mystics and philosophers, and he saw that alchemy had a lot to offer, as well as some of the more conventional sciences like archaeology and anthropology.
What Jung eventually hypothesised was the existence of a polarity within both sexes. He was inclined to believe that the matter of the distinction between the sexes could not be answered in a black-and-white manner. That is to say that rather than make the assertion that there is no real difference between the sexes, or that there is an undoubtable one, Jung claimed that we are all masculine and feminine by degrees.
Even medical science tells us that males have a minority of female hormones, while females have a minority of male hormones. Jung took the basics of this principle and applied it to Analytical Psychology, backing up his results with much empirical evidence.
He pointed out that we all have a counterposition within us, a balance to our dominant sex. He stressed that this interplay between masculinity and femininity is not only a real phenomenon, but is perhaps the most important factor in our lives - and it was perhaps in this area that Carl Jung's greatest contribution lay.
He termed the feminine soul, or unconscious femininity, within a man the Anima; the masculine soul, or unconscious masculinity, within a woman he named the Animus. He took these from the Latin animare - to enliven - as he saw these as pushing us to a newer life.
Thus a man, his ego masculine, receives impulses from his Anima to recognise his inner femininity; a woman, her ego feminine, feels the pressure from her Animus to utilise her inner masculinity.
This theory was a major breakthrough, though simple in form compared to today. Jung himself said that men and women probably have both Anima and Animus within them; like much of his work, he willingly left this open for others to ponder while he forged ahead into no man's land.
Most people today who encounter Jung for the first time are invariably drawn to his psychology by the notion of contrasexuality in its simplistic form. Even today's Jungian psychologists introduce this theory to the uninitiated in basic terms. To talk immediately of the simultaneous existence of both forces only confuses the issue; one has first to understand what it means to have a living opposite to one's dominant sexuality.
Logos can be further described as thought, wisdom, reason, achievement, knowledge, memory, order and growth. It is our will or spirit, and it has been symbolised as the sun, the bull and dry brightness.
Eros, symbolised by the moon, the cow and moist darkness, is our feeling capacity. It is the weaver of dreams and fantasy; Eros is mood as opposed to will, intuition instead of knowledge. It is this feminine element that cries for rest and inertia, for fun instead of the dry demands of Logos. Eros is emotion and chaos, yet the need for comfort makes it representative of tradition - the opposite of the movement of Logos.
A man, in basic Jungian terms, has a Logos-dominated ego, while his counterposition is Anima - the archetype of Eros. It is his Anima that pushes him to realise his need to play, to be content, to relate and to look for union.
Anima often projects herself onto women in the outer world; it is when a man proclaims 'love at first sight' that we can see Anima at work.
For example, a man who leaves his wife whom he loves because he has 'fallen in love' with another woman may well be under the influence of Anima. Love, after all, is a long process that reaches a mature and fulfilling level after much work; being 'in love' seems so much more powerful because the other person takes on the guise of our inner opposite. This is the myth of 'love at first sight' and being 'in love'.
When a woman becomes the personification of Anima, her lover can be quite possessive and is easily driven to jealousy. It is as though a missing part has been found, and it is not given up easily. In this light, the term 'the other half' seems significant.
Eros as chaos has been dominant in the thoughts of men for some time. The desire to achieve in a logical world sometimes takes men away from the feminine aspects that need to be integrated, aspects that can be seen as destructive to progress and counter to reason.
The more masculine a man is, or greater the repression of Eros qualities, the greater the Anima's power of attraction. We see evidence of this in men who have no time for or inclination towards Eros; they live in 'the real world' yet often fall into moods that defy the logic they hold so dear. They can cease to be objective and related, and a gnawing discontent will continue to erode their masculinity. Men in these moods are often the last to see it, much to the astonishment of those around them. They will continue in that fashion, angry at the world, until they address the issue.
As Jung said of Anima: "She intensifies, exaggerates, falsifies, and mythologises all emotional relationships with his work and with other people of both sexes".
The Anima may be expressing the fact that the man's present job is too draining or unfulfilling, or that he has been hurt but is unable to express this openly. Anger can easily turn to resentment - this is how Anima tells a man that he must be related and open.
Though Eros (as imagination) aids greatly in creative efforts, Anima is the voice of tradition that often stops men in their tracks; sometimes the risk associated with progress is at odds with the contentment and security that Anima seeks. Paradoxically, however, Anima also pushes men to a new search for meaning; to live without feminine values would be like being a lifeless robot whose only purpose is to learn and progress.
Women, generally speaking, are more orientated towards family life and relatedness. The counter to her feminine ego is the Animus, the bright light of Logos within a woman. This is the force that compels a woman to go beyond the world of feeling and intuition and into 'the real world'. She must leave the comfort and security of home and expand her horizons.
Women who lack contact with their Logos aspects often find their Animus projected onto men who seem to embody their own inner masculine strengths. Such women will endure futile relationships because they cannot bear to lose their link to masculinity.
Animus speaks to a woman in many voices: when a woman becomes judgemental and indulges in criticism and generalisations (seen as inferior logic), it is a sure sign that the Animus needs integration. Her feminine ego sees Logos values as dangerous, even though integration of the Animus would ultimately lead to a new fulfilment. The neglected Animus has to find some expression, and this can be clearly seen in scornful, judgemental women, and in women who assert themselves by starting arguments.
A woman who debates using generalisations is feeling the push of her Animus towards logic and personal achievement. Generalisations, besides being inferior to the clarity of Logos, can affect a woman's femininity. Imagine a man coming home from a hard day at work. He greats his wife, then sighs: 'Today was such a long day!' Her only response is: 'Some days are longer than others.' - hardly an expression of relatedness and concern. Thus a woman's femininity may suffer, as well as her progress towards true fulfilment.
The process of integrating our opposite side Jung termed individuation. Though this is a most difficult task, it is one that is necessary to achieve a sense of wholeness. It is not surprising that, in this New Age of enlightenment, these principles of Jung are finding their way into modern thought.
This is not to say that a man's shadow is Eros, or that a woman's is Logos; the shadow is the balance to the way we live our lives. In these modern times, a woman's shadow may well contain parts of her lost femininity. Women who have grown up in an environment of achievers, for example, may need to recover some of their Eros. Men who have lost part of their masculinity in an effort to be related and sensitive are urged by their shadow to reclaim it.
While the Self is that which pushes us towards wholeness, the archetypes - Anima and Animus - are the ones that point us in the right direction.
The fact that many Logos characteristics in men, and Eros attributes in women, are undeveloped challenges the basic model of contrasexuality. This has brought most modern Analytical Psychologists to the conclusion that members of both sexes have stirring within them Animus, with its bright torch of logic and progress, and Anima, the constant reminder of our need for pleasure and relatedness.
He was not, however, "concerned in the least in fitting psychic energy processes into the physical system". His view was that it does not matter whether a quantum of mental energy is expended; his concerns were with the psychological, not physical, aspect of psychic energy.
Jung argued that the psyche should be regarded as a phenomenon in its own right (though it is ultimately dependent on the brain). So therefore he wanted to find a device by which he could measure psychic energy in its own realm. For this, he needed to turn to physical energy.
Physical energy is measured in two ways:
The first is the mechanistic viewpoint, or causality (cause-and-effect). Thus a series of events 1-2-3-4 would be seen as 1 causing 2, which leads on to 3, which ends in 4. This is the qualitative system of measurement.
The second is the energic viewpoint, or the concept of finality. Here, the energy flows causelessly from the improbable state of 1, through 2 and 3, to the probable state of 4. This is the quantitative system of measurement.
In physics, either the mechanistic-causal (qualitative) or the energic-final (quantitative) system is used at a given time.
In psychology, however, Jung saw the need for both viewpoints to be applied together. Yet as the mechanistic view often failed in this field, he turned his attention to the quantitative system.
He came to see "our collective moral and aesthetic values" as "quantitative estimates of energy", or as objective systems of value and measurement.
A subjective estimate, based on the individual's own feeling and insight, can lead to a false estimate regarding the unconscious (repression) since it is restricted to consciousness; an objective estimate is therefore needed.
Jung envisioned "constellations of psychic elements grouped around feeling-toned contents", which he termed complexes.
The complex (feeling-toned content) consists of a nuclear element and a number of "secondarily constellated associations".
The nuclear element is born of experience (causally related to the environment) and an innate factor (part of which is the individual's own disposition). The greater the energic value of the nuclear element, the greater its constellating power.
The nuclear element rarely presents itself directly to consciousness where one could make a subjective estimate. One would expect that the higher the energic value of the complex, the more it would be compelled into consciousness, but (as Freud's repression theory notes) it would seem that the conscious attitude is hostile to the unconscious complex and blocks its way into consciousness.
Jung applied two complementary theories of energy to his work: the principle of equivalence (that the quantity of energy expended or consumed results in an equal quantity of the same or other form of energy elsewhere) and the theory of entropy (that transformations of energy lead to an equalisation of differences). Indeed, he saw the intense seclusion and lethargy of dementia praecox(schizophrenia) as a phenomenon of entropy.
He used libido to describe "the energy concept used in analytical psychology", but did not (as Freud) see it as merely a matter of sexual dynamics; Jung saw the libido as "an abbreviated expression for the 'energic standpoint'".
Libido analogues, or symbols that convert energy, have emerged from our collective unconscious throughout our history (appearing as the archetypes of mythology), giving us access to quantitative systems of measurement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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